Historically, the location of certain files and utilities has not always been standard (or fixed). This has led to problems with development and upgrading between different "distributions" of Linux. The Linux directory structure (or file hierarchy) was based on existing flavors of UNIX, but as it evolved, certain inconsistencies developed. These were often small things like the location (or placement) of certain configuration files, but it resulted in difficulties porting software from host to host.

To equalize these differences a file standard was developed. This is an evolving process, to date, resulting in a fairly static model for the Linux file hierarchy.

The top level of the Linux file hierarchy is referred to as the root (or /). The root directory typically contains several other directories including:

Generally, the root should not contain any additional files - a possible exception would be mount points for various purposes.

A filesystem is build of the methods and data structures that a operating system uses to keep track of files on a disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. The word is also used to refer to a partition or disk that is used to store the files or the type of the filesystem. Thus, one might say “I have two filesystems” meaning one has two partitions on which one stores files, or that one might say that one is using the “XFS filesystem”, meaning the type of the filesystem.

Before a partition or disk can be used as a filesystem, it needs to be initialized, and the bookkeeping data structures need to be written to the disk. This process is called making a filesystem.

Most UNIX filesystem types have a similar general structure, although the exact details vary quite a bit. The central concepts are superblock, inode, data block, directory block, and indirection block. The superblock contains information about the filesystem as a whole, such as its size (the exact information here depends on the filesystem). An inode contains all information about a file, except its name. The name is stored in the directory, together with the number of the inode. A directory entry consists of a filename and the number of the inode which represents the file. The inode contains the numbers of several data blocks, which are used to store the data in the file. There is space only for a few data block numbers in the inode, however, and if more are needed, more space for pointers to the data blocks is allocated dynamically. These dynamically allocated blocks are indirect blocks; the name indicates that in order to find the data block, one has to find its number in the indirect block first.

Before a partition can be mounted (or used), a filesystem must first be installed on it - with ext2, this is the process of creating i-nodes and data blocks.

This process is the equivalent of formatting the partition (similar to MSDOS's format command). Under Linux, the command to create a filesystem is called mkfs.

The command is issued in the following way:

	mkfs  [-c] [ -t fstype ]  filesystem [ blocks ]
	

e.g.

	mkfs -t ext2 /dev/fd0   # Make a ext2 filesystem on a floppy
	

where:

Be aware that creating a filesystem on a device with an existing filesystem will cause all data on the old filesystem to be erased.

To attach a partition or device to the directory hierarchy you must mount its associated device file. To do this, a mount point has to be created - this is simply a directory where the device will be attached. This directory will exist on a previously mounted device (with the exception of the root directory (/) which is a special case) and will be empty. If the directory is not empty, then the files in the directory will not be visible while the device is mounted to it, but will reappear after the device has been disconnected (or unmounted).

To mount a device, use the mount command:

	mount [switches] device_file mount_point
	

With some devices, mount will detect what type of filesystem exists on the device, however it is more usual to use mount in the form of:

	mount [switches] -t file_system_type device_file mount_point
	

Generally, only the root user can use the mount command - mainly due to the fact that the device files are owned by root. For example, to mount the first partition on the second hard drive off the /usr directory and assuming it contained the ext2 filesystem, you'd enter the command:

	mount -t ext2 /dev/hdb1 /usr
	

A common device that is mounted is the floppy drive. A floppy disk generally contains the FAT, also known as msdos, filesystem (but not always) and is mounted with the command:

	mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 /mnt
	

Note that the floppy disk was mounted under the /mnt directory. This is because the /mnt directory is the usual place to temporarily mount devices.

To see what devices you currently have mounted, simply type the command mount. Typing it on my system reveals:

	/dev/hda3 on / type ext2 (rw)
	/dev/hda1 on /dos type msdos (rw)
	none on /proc type proc (rw)
	/dev/cdrom on /cdrom type iso9660 (ro)
	/dev/fd0 on /mnt type msdos (rw)
	

Each line tells me what device file is mounted, where it is mounted, what filesystem type each partition is and how it is mounted (ro = read only, rw = read/write). Note the strange entry on line three - the proc filesystem? This is a special "virtual" filesystem used by Linux systems to store information about the kernel, processes and current resource usages. It is actually part of the system's memory - in other words, the kernel sets aside an area of memory in which it stores information about the system. This same area is mounted onto the filesystem so user programs have access to this information.

The information in the proc filesystem can also be used to see what filesystems are mounted by issuing the command:

	$ cat /proc/mounts
	/dev/root / ext2 rw 0 0
	proc /proc proc rw 0 0
	/dev/hda1 /dos msdos rw 0 0
	/dev/cdrom /cdrom iso9660 ro 0 0
	/dev/fd0 /mnt msdos rw 0 0
	

To release a device and disconnect it from the filesystem, the umount command is used. It is issued in the form:

	umount device_file
	

or

	umount mount_point
	

For example, to release the floppy disk, you'd issue the command:

	umount /mnt
	

or

	umount /dev/fd0
	

Again, you must be the root user or a user with privileges to do this. You can't unmount a device/mount point that is in use by a user (the user's current working directory is within the mount point) or is in use by a process. Nor can you unmount devices/mount points which in turn have devices mounted to them. All of this raises the question - how does the system know which devices to mount when the OS boots?

In true UNIX fashion, there is a file which governs the behavior of mounting devices at boot time. In Linux, this file is /etc/fstab. So what is in the file? An example line from the fstab file uses the following format:

	device_file mount_point file_system_type mount_options [n] [n]
	

The first three fields are self explanatory; the fourth field, mount_options defines how the device will be mounted (this includes information of access mode ro/rw, execute permissions and other information) - information on this can be found in the mount man pages (note that this field usually contains the word “defaults”). The fifth and sixth fields are used by the system utilities dump and fsck respectively - see the next section for details.

Linux can use either a normal file in the filesystem or a separate partition for swap space. A swap partition is faster, but it is easier to change the size of a swap file (there's no need to repartition the whole hard disk, and possibly install everything from scratch). When you know how much swap space you need, you should use a swap partition, but if you are uncertain, you can use a swap file first, use the system for a while so that you can get a feel for how much swap you need, and then make a swap partition when you're confident about its size. But it is recommended to use a separate partition, because this excludes chances of file system fragmentation, which would reduce performance. Also, by using a separate swap partition, it can be guaranteed that the swap region is at the fastest location of the disk. On current HDDs this is the beginning. It is possible to use several swap partitions and/or swap files at the same time. This means that if you only occasionally need an unusual amount of swap space, you can set up an extra swap file at such times, instead of keeping the whole amount allocated all the time.

The command mkswap is used to initialize a swap partition or a swap file. The partition or file needs to exist before it can be initialized. A swap partition is created with a disk partitioning tool like fdisk and a swap file can be created with:

	dd if=/dev/zero of=swapfile bs=1024 count=65535

When the partition or file is created, it can be initialized with:

	mkswap {device|file}

An initialized swap space is taken into use with swapon. This command tells the kernel that the swap space can be used. The path to the swap space is given as the argument, so to start swapping on a temporary swap file one might use the following command:

	swapon /swapfile
	

or, when using a swap partition:

	swapon /dev/hda8
	

Swap spaces can be used automatically by listing them in the file /etc/fstab:

	/dev/hda8        none        swap        sw     0     0
	/swapfile        none        swap        sw     0     0
	

The startup scripts will run the command swapon -a, which will start swapping on all the swap spaces listed in /etc/fstab. Therefore, the swapon command is usually used only when extra swap is needed. You can monitor the use of swap spaces with free. It will tell the total amount of swap space used:

	$ free
             	total       used       free     shared    buffers   cached
	Mem:        127148     122588       4560          0       1584      	69352
	-/+ buffers/cache:      51652      75496
	Swap:       130748      57716      73032
	

The first line of output (Mem:) shows the physical memory. The total column does not show the physical memory used by the kernel, which is loaded into the RAM memory during the boot process. The used column shows the amount of memory used (the second line does not count buffers). The free column shows completely unused memory. The shared column shows the amount of memory shared by several processes; The buffers column shows the current size of the disk buffer cache.

That last line (Swap:) shows similar information for the swap spaces. If this line is all zeroes, swap space is not activated.

The same information, in a slightly different format, can be shown by using cat on the file /proc/meminfo:

	$ cat /proc/meminfo
        total:    used:    free:  shared: buffers:  cached:
	Mem:  130199552 125177856  5021696        0  1622016 89280512
	Swap: 133885952 59101184 74784768
	MemTotal:       127148 kB
	MemFree:          4904 kB
	MemShared:           0 kB
	Buffers:          1584 kB
	Cached:          69120 kB
	SwapCached:      18068 kB
	Active:          80240 kB
	Inactive:        31080 kB
	HighTotal:           0 kB
	HighFree:            0 kB
	LowTotal:       127148 kB
	LowFree:          4904 kB
	SwapTotal:      130748 kB
	SwapFree:        73032 kB